In Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of the stages of moral development, there are six stages. The preconventional phase includes a first stage that is punishment- driven and a second that is self-interest-driven. The conventional phase includes moral reasoning that is consensus-driven (third stage) and social-order-driven (fourth stage). Stage five is driven by consideration of the social contract, and the sixth stage is driven by universal ethical principles.

Kohlberg’s theory is at the heart of Gilligan’s criticism. While she criticizes the theory as biased toward a traditionally masculine approach in its justice orientation, she does not merely abandon the theory or staging. Instead, she adapts the staging to include a responsibility/care orientation that she claims is much more common among women, who think more in terms of care than justice.

The deontological approach to ethics was developed by the Enlightenment philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), who argued that there are universal principles that all moral agents should adhere to, regardless of context. Gilligan believes that an emphasis on this approach to ethics has tended to devalue the more relational ethics favored by women.