The central tenet of The Tell-Tale Brain is that “humans are truly unique and special, not ‘just’ another species of primates” (xiv). While we see some of the same structures and functions in apes (and other species), they have become much more sophisticated in humans. Ramachandran explores several facets of human uniqueness.

Brain plasticity is one facet. Ramachandran’s research on phantom limbs demonstrates that our brains are incredibly plastic, meaning they can rewire and adapt to changing circumstances. Brain plasticity might be a key driver in our higher-order cognitive abilities compared with non-human primates. Human visual processing is also unique. Humans have one additional cone than most other mammals which allows us to see red, blue, and green light. Dogs, in contrast, cannot see red and green colors. Perception is also unique to humans. Humans also have the “so what” stream which enables them to have emotional responses to objects. This pathway helps humans to process information more quickly, which is critical in fight-or-flight scenarios.

Mirror neurons are another facet. While mirror neurons occur in apes, they are far more sophisticated in humans and enable several unique human traits. First, mirror neurons allow people to adopt another person’s

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